BRICS has officially added 13 new partner nations (not full members) to its alliance. The new partners include Algeria, Belarus, Bolivia, Cuba, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Nigeria, Thailand, Turkey, Uganda, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam. This expansion strengthens BRICS’ global reach and collaboration with diverse countries worldwide.
Did you know? The Tswana people are part of the broader Sotho-Tswana group, including the Basotho of Lesotho, often called ‘Southern Sotho.’ This culturally rich group is known for its distinctive clan systems, often branching into new communities over generations. 🌍
#TswanaHeritage #SothoTswanaCulture
In most African societies, libations were done to seal an agreement, social contract, marriage, peace treaty, settlements or as a sign of honour or prayers to the 'spirits of the land.' This was common practice before the coming of Islam or Christianity into Africa.
Liquor or local gin, made from the sap of a palm tree, 'bulkutu', 'kai-kai,' 'akpetashi' and so on were poured on the ground and words of prayer or pronouncements made to the 'spirits' that were believed to control the lands and protected all the inhabitants of the lands or clan.
This practice is as old as agriculture in Africa. In some African societies, this is still practiced till date.
Credits: The History of Africa Magazine
Meet Oba Okunade Sijuwade, the revered King of Ife, as he welcomes Omo N'Oba Erediauwa, the esteemed King of Benin, to the ancient Palace of Oduduwa. They are joined by Oba Ayeni, the respected Orangun of Ila.
This historic meeting in Ile-Ife celebrates the strong bond and mutual respect between these three iconic Nigerian kingdoms.
#Africa #Nigeria
Living in South Africa and Zimbabwe, the Ndebele Nation is an ethnic group that is known for its incredible artistic talent. Using their homes as canvas and studios, the women of this ethnic group create beautiful works of art that have been passed down from generation to generation. Not only do they paint their houses in a unique style, but they also use their homes as studio spaces. At home, they create wearable beadwork like headgear, bracelets, and necklaces. Even though the tribe is shrouded in mystery, their artwork is adored by the world. In recent times, the group's work is being showcased on an international stage by 84-year-old Esther Mahlangu. After learning Ndebele wall painting and beadwork as a child, she was the first person to transfer the traditional Ndebele style of mural painting to canvas. Mahlangu has gone on to work with brands like BMW and British Airways. Mahlangu's work is heavily influenced by her Ndebele heritage. But who are these artistic women that paint their homes, create stunning beadwork, and are visited by hundreds of tourists every year? We take a more in-depth look into the Ndebele tribe.
No much is known about the Ndebele people of South Africa, except for that, they were warriors and landowners. In 1883 the people of this tribe went to war with the Boers, which they lost and brought on a harsh life and horrible punishments for the Ndebele. But through those trying times, the Ndebele created powerful symbols of grief. This was the beginning of their unique art form.
The Meaning of Colors & Patterns
Forced into a life of oppression after the Boer War, the Ndebele people started the walls of their homes. Their artwork became a way to secretly communicate with each other. The paintings went from expressing grief to cultural resistance and continuity. The Boer farmers didn't know any better and viewed the paintings as a harmless cultural art. Therefore the Ndebele women were allowed to continue painting. Today, the decorated homes indicate that the woman of the house is a good wife and mother. She is responsible for painting the walls of the home, outside gates, and the interior of the homes. Even though it may look simple from the outside, the patterns and colours used are a really complicated system of creation and tradition. There are five primary colours used in this style of art - red, yellow, blue, green, and pink. The colours and patterns used have a symbolic meaning of status or power of the homeowner, an announcement of marriage, a current protest, or a prayer.
Where To See The Ndebele Houses?
Today, the Ndebele houses are a beautiful piece of South African history, which can be seen in the north part of the country. One of the best places to see these works of art is at Mapoch — which is about 40 km outside Pretoria. There are also Ndebele villages in is Mpumalanga that worth visiting. The Ndebele houses are more than just beautiful to look at, but rather a generational tradition that through tourism has brought some income to the once oppressed tribe.
Sunni Islam of the Maliki madhhab, is the predominant and historically established religion of the Hausa people. Islam has been present in Hausaland since as early as the 11th century — giving rise to famous native Sufi saints and scholars such as Wali Muhammad dan Masani (d.1667) and Wali Muhammad dan Marina (d. 1655) in Katsina — mostly among long-distance traders to North Africa whom in turn had spread it to common people and it's widely accepted by the ruling class in 13th century. By the 14th century, Hausa people start using the Ajami script to write their own language and Islamic knowledge, and Hausa traders were already spreading Islam across a large swathe of west Africa such as Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, etc.
Oberlin College was founded in 1833 in Ohio as Oberlin Collegiate Institute. The predominately white college was the first in the nation to admit Black Americans.
In 1835 it became the first predominantly white collegiate institution to admit African American male students and two years later it opened its doors to all women, becoming the first coeducational college in the country.
In 1862, Mary Jane Patterson earned a B.A. degree in education from Oberlin, becoming the first African American woman to earn a degree from an American college. Other black women had graduated earlier but did not receive the collegiate degree (BA). Oberlin continued to be an important institution for African Americans for the next century. By 1900, one third of all black professionals in the U.S. had undergraduate degrees from Oberlin.
In prehistory, humans achieved remarkable advancements that many don’t know about today. By 200,000 years ago, they developed complex social structures and early forms of exile to maintain group harmony. Around 75,000 years ago, communities in South Africa produced symbolic art using ochre and crafted advanced tools with hafted stone technology. Evidence from Kenya, around 320,000 years ago, indicates long-distance trade 🌍, exchanging obsidian across regions. Early humans also practiced medicine, using certain plants with healing properties, as seen in Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa. Additionally, by 130,000 years ago, humans demonstrated seafaring abilities, navigating waters to connect distant communities, laying foundations for future exploration and trade.
By 3000 BCE, Ethiopia and Eritrea displayed diverse human advancements. Indigenous agriculture included the cultivation of teff, enset, sorghum, and millet, supporting settled communities. Evidence of long-distance trade networks shows the exchange of obsidian, marine shells, and ivory, connecting the region to the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. Stone tool technology was advanced, with refined hafted tools and scrapers used for hunting and crafting. Early human groups engaged in ritualistic practices, using ochre for body decoration and symbolic art. Clan-based social structures, age-set governance, and communal decision-making provided social cohesion. Pottery-making skills developed, enabling food storage and cooking. These communities utilized coastal resources, indicating fishing and marine foraging as important supplements to their diet, contributing to a rich cultural and economic life. Their strategic position fostered cultural exchanges across the Red Sea, influencing regional developments.
During the LSA (40,000 - 19,000 years ago), evidence of long-distance trade networks and interactions between communities in the Horn of Africa becomes more prominent. Archaeological findings indicate the exchange of materials like obsidian, which was sourced from Ethiopia’s highlands and transported to regions as far as Sudan, Kenya, and the Arabian Peninsula. Marine shells and ornamental objects have been found in inland sites, suggesting a trade system that spanned coastal areas to the highlands. These trade routes not only facilitated the movement of valuable resources like ochre, used for symbolic purposes, but also fostered exchanges of ideas, cultural practices, and technologies such as improved lithic tools and early forms of symbolic art. Trade would have fostered the development of multilingual skills. This period of extensive interaction laid the foundation for the emergence of more complex societies, highlighting the Horn of Africa’s role as a hub of human innovation and connectivity long before recorded history. By prehistoric times, communities were speaking lots of languages—Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic, Nilo-Saharan, and more.
During the middle Stone Age (MSA) [280,000 - 25,000 years ago], evidence of trade and interactions between Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan & Kenya) and the Arabian Peninsula has been uncovered, with sites like Al Wusta in Saudi Arabia and Jebel Faya in the United Arab Emirates showing similarities in stone tool technology and suggesting exchanges of materials and ideas across the Red Sea. Obsidian from Ethiopian sources has been found at archaeological sites along the Arabian Peninsula, indicating that early human groups were capable of traversing the Red Sea or using coastal routes.
Ethiopia has been inhabited since before prehistoric times. Ethiopia and Eritrea played crucial roles in human dispersal into Eurasia and trade during the Middle Stone Age (MSA) and Late Stone Age (LSA), with archaeological records spanning from approximately 300,000 years ago to 10,000 years ago. These regions served as key migration corridors for early humans, with sites like Omo Kibish in southern Ethiopia and Herto in the Afar region yielding some of the oldest known human fossils, dating back over 160,000 years. The highlands and Rift Valley acted as refuges during climatic shifts, offering stable environments that supported human populations during arid periods. This geography provided routes for human migration across Africa and into the Arabian Peninsula and beyond, facilitating dispersal into Eurasia.
Historical accounts of modern Ethiopia often exhibit bias towards ethnic groups, Christians, and centralized states that developed writing systems, such as the Amhara and Tigray, whose records are preserved in written documents. This emphasis on written sources results in a greater focus on the Solomonic dynasty and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which produced chronicles, religious texts, and royal decrees. Meanwhile, the histories of other significant groups like the Oromo, Afar, and Somali, who relied on oral traditions, are frequently marginalized. This bias overlooks the contributions of these groups to Ethiopia’s social, cultural, and political development. The reliance on written records skews our understanding of Ethiopia’s diverse past, underrepresenting the complexity and richness of its oral-based societies.
Remi whose official name is Ramadhani Ongala, was born in Kindu, the DRC, in 1947, near the boundary of DRC and Tanzania. He was quoted saying he was born with teeth, which made his parents view him as unique and possibly an indication of a great future.
His two elder siblings had died at infancy, and this made the mother visit a medicine man who advised the mother that for her third born to survive, she shouldn't shave his/her hair at any point. Remi grew into adulthood with the hair, forming trademark dreadlocks.
It is on record that he shaved the hair later in life when he "got saved" and converted to Christianity, later in his life while living in Tanzania. Remi's parents died at childhood forcing young Remi to fit into their father's shoes, as a firstborn child to fend for the siblings.
His father who died in 1953, while he was six, had introduced him to music, and at the tender age of 13, Remi was an extremely good drummer and guitarist.
He played with several bands in DRC, Kisangani to be precise, before crossing over to Tanzania in 1978, on invitation from his uncle, Kitenzogu Makassy, popularly known as Mzee Makassy of Orchestre Makassy which was then a well-established band in Tanzania.
Remi performed with the band for three years, but when Mzee Makassy shifted his band's base to Nairobi, Remi declined to tag along and remained in Tanzania. He joined a little-known band called Matimila, named after some village in Tanzania.
Remi rebranded the band to Super Matimila and achieved great success with the outfit which was among Tanzania's finest for two decades. All his songs were hits.He styled himself as a 'Mnyonge' a weak person, of little means. In a documentary, he is heard telling a hawker to consider reducing the price of the shirt he intended to buy, because "Mimi ni mnyonge" he is a man of modest means.
Politics was dear to Remi's heart, as well. In the same documentary, the fearless Remi converted some concerts into a political rally, and as instrumentalists play on, he changes the song lyrics to preach politics, condemning the country's (Tanzanian) leadership for squandering Nyerere's dream and mismanaging the country.
His fame outgrew the continental boundaries and in the late 80s, he toured in Europe and also had a recording deal, where he even recorded some English songs.
In his hit song 'Kifo', Remi had requested death to be courteous enough to inform him in advance, of its intentions of visiting him. He said, he would die comfortably and would even walk himself to hospital when the moment comes, only if death gave him an opportunity to.
On the night of December 13, 2010 death arrived for Remi, while in his home. Kenya's Swahili publication, Taifa Leo ran a headline "Kifo chakosa kumhurumia Remi" in response to Remi's appeal that death should be a little lenient to him, in his song 'Kifo'The uniqueness of his music wasn't limited to the poetic lyrics. He adopted Franco's four guitar style that featured two solos, a rhythmst and a bassist. This guitar style was brought to East Africa by the late Mose Fanfan, whom they had played together in Orchestre Makassy.
The OKJ touch was further cemented in his style by Adamo Kadimoke Seye, an ex-OKJ trumpeter, who found his way in Tanzania playing for Orchestre Makassy, as well.
Unlike other Congolese musicians whose Swahili remains sketchy even after living in East Africa for a long, Remi was very fluent and his mastery of the language gave his poems a flawless lusture.
His slow tempo style provides the listener with ample time to sample the lyrics. Before his death, he converted to Christianity, which saw him shift from secular to gospel and even recorded a few songs.
Among my friends are Douglas Paterson the man who has really helped East African music penetrate the world and Pauly Becquart who can give a more detailed and more accurate account of Dr Remi.
Undoubtedly, Remi was a smaller Simaro. Having declared Simaro Shakespeare of African music, I also seek to be alone to declare Remi the Shakespeare of East African music.
By Jarome Ogola
Stream live on www.jabulaniradio.com
#homeofafricantunes
The so-called silent trade is a time of commercial exchange between participants who had no verbal way of communicating, practiced by various peoples around the world and of course in Africa.
In both the classical, medieval and modern periods, from West Africa, through Egypt and the Horn and East Africa, ways have been sought to trade and carry out economic exchanges without linguistic differences being an impediment.
An example can be seen in Book IV, Melpomène, 196 by Herodotus, where he describes how Phoenicians/Carthaginians could trade with peoples from North Africa and south of the Sahara and West Africa.
"The Carthaginians also tell us that they trade with a race of men who live in a part of Libya beyond the Pillars of Hercules. On reaching this country, they unload their goods, arrange them neatly along the beach, and then, returning to their ships, raise a cloud of smoke. Seeing the smoke, the natives go down to the beach, place on the ground a certain quantity of gold in exchange for the goods, and sail away again. The Carthaginians then land and look at the gold; and if they think it represents a fair price for their goods, they pick it up and go away; if, on the other hand, it seems too little, they return on board and wait, and the natives come and add gold until they are satisfied. There is perfect honesty on both sides; the Carthaginians never touch the gold until it equals in value what they have offered for sale, and the natives never touch the goods until the gold has been taken away."
An interesting fact is that Islamic writers from the medieval period described a similar practice in which they mentioned that Amazigh (Berber) merchants traded with the Soninke and Mandinga peoples, the difference being that instead of smoke signals, the sound of drums was used.
Authors such as Al-Masudi, Yaqub, and Alvise Cadamosto left their impressions regarding the silent trade in West Africa.
Now, the establishment of commercial lingua francas in certain areas, further simplified and improved communications, languages such as Dyula, Arabic, Hausa, Swahili, among others, meant that more communities could have better communication and understanding.
It is accepted that silent trade or silent barter was practiced by people who even came to understand each other, but this form of trade was chosen, which did not include, for the most part, a currency in common use and subject to state controls.
Text by Oumar Xavier.
Source.
- Personal research Oumar Xavier.
- Book Religion and Trade
Cross-cultural Exchanges in World History, 1000-1900 by Francesca Trivellato, Leor Halevi, Cátia Antunes.
- Book Economic Anthropology
Cultures of Commerce, exploring the heart of economic anthropology
By Fouad Sabry.
Modern Ethiopia’s formation involved a complex process of unifying diverse regions, peoples, and kingdoms into a cohesive nation-state. This process was influenced by internal power struggles, religious dynamics, and regional conquests, as well as external pressures from European colonialism. Ethiopia’s journey from fragmentation to unity can be traced through several key periods.
The boundaries of different population groups that ultimately formed modern Ethiopia expanded and shrank in line with the ambitions of several influential figures and nations throughout time.
(1). -World's largest Mammal Migration(Kasanka)🇿🇲
(2). -World's largest Man made lake(Kariba)🇿🇲
(3). -World's Largest emerald Mine🇿🇲
(4). - World's Second Largest Wildebeest Migration(Liuwa) 🇿🇲
(5). - Africa's Second largest National Park(Kafue) 🇿🇲
(6). - Africa's Second Deepest River (Kabompo) 🇿🇲
(7). -Among world's largest Water Falls(Musi Oa Tunya)🇿🇲
(8). - World's Largest Concentration of Hippos🇿🇲
(9). -World's only point where 4 Countries meet(Kazungula)🇿🇲
(10). -One of the World's Natural 7 wonder(Victoria falls)🇿🇲
(11). -World's second Deepest fresh water lake by Volume (Tanganyika)🇿🇲
(12). -Second Largest Copper Producer in Africa🇿🇲
(13). -Largest Copper Mine in Africa- Lumwana copper Mine🇿🇲
#Africa #History
The Anziku Kingdom, also known as the Teke Kingdom, Tyo Kingdom, or Tio Kingdom, was a pre-colonial state located in modern-day Republic of Congo, Gabon, and Democratic Republic of Congo. The kingdom was centered around the Congo River near the Pool Malebo and extended northwest to the upper Kouilou-Niari basin. The BaTeke people, who dominated the kingdom, lived on the plateaus of the region. The kingdom was ruled by a king known as a makoko, who governed over 13 vassal kings. The Anziku Kingdom had a thriving economy, manufacturing and selling fabrics made from plants, trading ivory and copper from their mining activities. Later, they engaged in the slave trade. The presence of rich copper mines within their kingdom let to conflicts with their southern neighbour, Kongo. The Anziku people practiced customs such as facial scarification and had elaborate dress and hairstyles. The commoners were bare chested but the rich wore clothes from head to toe. They were known for their excellent warfare skills, specializing in archery with poisoned arrows and using battle axes. In the late 19th century, the kingdom became a French vassal state under a treaty signed with the French naval officer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza, continuing under French protection until the present day. [Sources: Volavkova, Zdenka. "Crown and Ritual: The Royal Insignia of Ngoyo" (1998), Malte-Brun, Conrad. "Universal Geography: Or, A Description of the World, on a New Plan, According to the Great Natural Divisions of the World" (1829), Vansina, Jan. "The Tio Kingdom of the Middle Congo, 1880-1892" (1973)]
The belief that Rome converted Axum (present-day Djibouti, Eritrea 🇪🇷, northern Ethiopia 🇪🇹, and Yemen 🇾🇪) to Christianity is based on common misconceptions that oversimplify Ethiopian Christian history. While King Ezana of Aksum did convert to Christianity in the 4th century CE, and the figures Frumentius and Aedesius played pivotal roles, the actual narrative is much more complex and deeply embedded in local contexts, with minimal direct involvement from the Roman church.
• Christianity’s Roots in Ethiopia: The Ethiopian Church traces its origins back to the Apostolic Age, long before the Roman Empire’s involvement. Archaeological evidence suggests that Jewish and early Christian communities were already present in the region well before the 4th century, pointing to a continuity of religious practices. Frumentius, a key figure in King Ezana’s conversion, was a shipwrecked Syrian, later ordained as the first bishop of Aksum by Athanasius, the Patriarch of Alexandria—not by any Roman authority. This highlights the crucial Egyptian—rather than Roman—connection in the spread of Christianity to Ethiopia, demonstrating the influence of Alexandria’s Christian thought.
• King Ezana’s Conversion and Its Motivations: King Ezana’s adoption of Christianity as the state religion is often misinterpreted as a strategic move to strengthen ties with the Roman Empire. While it is true that adopting Christianity facilitated trade relations, reducing it solely to this motive ignores the rich religious exchanges between Aksum and neighboring regions like Egypt and the Levant. Alexandria, a significant Christian hub, had long been connected with Aksum through trade and intellectual exchanges. Ezana’s conversion strengthened ties with these regions, but it also marked a deeper spiritual shift within Aksumite society, reflecting indigenous adoption of Christian beliefs. This transition cannot be credited to Rome alone; it was a multifaceted process rooted in regional dynamics.
• Ethiopia’s Distinct Christian Tradition: Ethiopia’s Christian heritage is not a mere offshoot of Roman Christianity but a unique tradition that has evolved over centuries. As part of the Oriental Orthodox Churches, it developed its own liturgies, spiritual practices, and theological perspectives, shaping a distinctive Christian identity. The Garima Gospels, the oldest illustrated Christian manuscripts dating back to the 4th century CE, are a testament to this ancient tradition, showcasing Ethiopia’s early embrace of Christian texts and its independent scriptural scholarship. This rich heritage, intertwined with local customs and spiritual practices, underscores that Ethiopian Christianity was not simply imported but rather deeply adapted to its cultural landscape.
• Why the Misconception Persists: The idea that Rome converted Ethiopia likely persists due to a Eurocentric framing of history, where Western sources have often emphasized Rome’s centrality in early Christian expansion. This perspective overlooks the importance of other Christian centers, like Alexandria, and the long-standing interactions between the Aksumite Kingdom and the Nile Valley. Additionally, the geopolitical importance of Rome during the 4th century has led to an overestimation of its influence in regions far beyond its direct control. Recognizing the influence of regional Christian hubs like Alexandria, and the agency of Ethiopian rulers and scholars in shaping their faith, offers a more accurate picture of the spread of Christianity in Ethiopia.
In short, while Rome’s influence on early Christianity is undeniable, the narrative of Ethiopian Christian origins is far more nuanced, grounded in ancient African traditions, early regional interactions, and local adaptations of Christian thought. Rather than being a passive recipient of Roman missionary efforts, Aksum played an active role in its spiritual transformation, influenced by Egypt and the Levant. Understanding this broader, more complex story honors Ethiopia’s unique contribution to Christian history and challenges simplistic narratives that fail to account for Africa’s deep and active role in shaping its own religious identity.
Sound Sultan, born Olanrewaju Abdul-Ganiu Fasasi, was a renowned Nigerian rapper, singer, songwriter, and actor. He was born on November 27, 1976, in Jos, Plateau State.
Sound Sultan discovered his passion for music in 1991, performing at school parties and crafting lyrics. His brother Baba Dee, a theatre arts student, greatly influenced him.
Career Highlights
Sound Sultan's breakout single, "Mathematics (Jagbajantis)" (2000), addressed Nigeria's education system and became an instant hit. He:
- Hosted shows to finance studio sessions
- Won talent shows across Nigeria
- Signed with Kennis Music, releasing four successful albums
- Founded Naija Ninjas with his brother, promoting Afrobeat and Fuji
- Collaborated with international artists like Wyclef Jean
- Earned UN Ambassador for Peace title (2012)
Discography
- Kpsheww (2001)
- Back from the Future (2010)
- Out of the Box (2016)
- Reality CHQ (2022, posthumous)
Other Ventures
Sound Sultan co-owned the Lagos City Stars basketball team in the Continental Basketball League (2017).
Personal Life
He married Chichi Morah (Farida Fasasi) in 2009 and had three children.
Legacy
Sound Sultan passed away on July 11, 2021, after battling Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma. His music legacy endures, symbolizing musical activism and awareness of societal issues in Nigeria.
#Africa
December 18, 1961, Lagos, Nigeria: Literary giant Wole Soyinka, a skilled guitarist, joins forces with Francesca Pereira at the AMSAC Festival.
[Image: Wole Soyinka and Francesca Pereira, AMSAC Festival, 1961.]
Source: Langston Hughes Papers/Beinecke Digital Collections/Yale University Library
#Africa
The Amazigh or Imazighen (Berber) and the Phoenician Punics.
The Phoenician colonies in North Africa started out as peaceful, trading presence among the Amazigh original inhabitants of the region. These colonies, though initially inhabited by Phoenicians from the eastern Mediterranean, became a mix of the two peoples as they intermarried with the local Amazigh.
The Amazigh, as well as the Punic Phoenicians, who survived the Roman subjugation of the region are credited with preserving the Phoenician language up till the time of Saint Augustine in the 5th century. Further, traces of the Phoenician alphabet are evident in the Tamazight (Berber) alphabet called Tifinagh.
The presence of the Berber in North Africa today is a living proof that the "Arab World" is not made up of 325 million Arabs. In fact, pan-Arabism is an unfounded heresy forced down the throats of people conquered and subjugated beginning with the advent of the Arab conquest in the 7th century. The Amazigh, much like the overwhelming majority of the people of this (Arab) "world," belong to a wide variety of ethnic groups that are different in blood, tradition, language, literature, art and history, and should not be lumped together as a single people.
Who and what are the Amazigh (Berber)? �by an anonymous person nicknamed montecarlo Nov 23 2002
The Amazigh which means "free humans" or "free men" are known to the world as Berbers. In fact, the word Berbers is offensive to these ancient inhabitants of north Africa and the Sahara desert. The name "Berber" is another one of many peccadilloes of the Romans who threw names at people left and right. They, along with the Greeks referred to every people they could not understand with the same unintelligible Berber language whether they were in the East or the West.
The majority of the Moors in medieval "Arabic" Spain were actually Berbers, who had adopted the Arabic Moslem culture and Arabic as their written language. Even today the Berbers are ethnically -- but far from politically -- the dominant part of the populations of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Mauritania. Isolated Berber-speaking groups are found all over North Africa, from the Atlantic in the west to Egypt in the east. A colorful nomadic Berber tribe, the Tuaregs, whose male warriors wear blue dresses and indigo-colored veils, still roam the Sahara desert.
Moslem yes, Arab no
It may come as a surprise to hear that the North African Moslem countries Morocco and Algeria are, in an ethnic sense, not Arab nations at all, but Berber nations, speaking a completely different language than Arabic. Politically the Arab minority has dominated these countries for centuries, and has -- without much success, though -- attempted to eradicate the Berber language. This also holds true of the present leaderships in independent Morocco and Algeria, who up to now have tried to establish an Arab identity for their countries. In recent years the North Africa/Tamazgha -- Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya -- "land of the setting sun" in Arabic, i.e. the western part of North Africa) has experienced an awakening of Berber consciousness. Berber protests have had limited success, but they have at least led to the introduction of formal teaching of Berber in some Moroccan and Algerian schools and universities. The strong Berber desire to establish a national Berber identity appears to be accelerating. In 2001 and 2002 several Berber demonstrations have been held in Morocco and Algeria, calling for official acceptance of Berber identity and state-funded education in the Berber language.
Blood and perception
In terms of "blood", Berbers probably represent as many as 80% of the population in Morocco and Algeria, more than 60% in Tunisia and Libya and 2% in Egypt, altogether some 50 million people. A proper Berber census has never been taken and the above figures are uncertain. Centuries of cultural "Arabization" has persuaded many Berbers, particularly in the cities, to adopt the Arabic language. The number of people perceiving themselves as Berbers is hence much lower, about half of the figure given above. However, the influx of "proper" Arabs from the East into the Berber area, in connection with the Muslim conquest in the 8th century, is estimated at only 200 000. It is thus quite probable that the population of the North Africa/Tamazgha -- Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya -- actually consists of native Berber stock. Some 4 million North Africa/Tamazgha -- Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya --ians, half of whom perceive themselves as Berbers, now live in Europe, mainly in France.
The Berber language is known as "Berber" to Europeans and as "Shilha" to Arabs, while the Berbers themselves call their language Tamazight (the "gh" in the words Tamazight and Amazigh is pronounced as a sharp "r"). The language has a large number of dialects, due to the wide geographical separation of different Berber-speaking groups.
No unified history
The Berbers have never experienced a unified political identity, which makes a review of the "history of the Berbers" somewhat problematic. There have been many strong Berber-led and Berber-populated kingdoms and cultures - often warring among themselves - existing in parallel in various regions of North Africa and Spain, but never a unified "Berber empire". Nor have these cultures used any written Berber language - there are almost no written records in Berber, except for short inscriptions on a few monuments and buildings. Instead, the Berbers have tended to assimilate the culture and adopt the written language of their conquerors - initially Phoenician, Greek and Latin, later Arabic - while continuing to speak spoken Berber among themselves.
A chronology of some historical events in the Berber area:
▪ ca 3000 BC - first Egyptian references to the people who are now called Berber
▪ ca 1100 BC - Phoenicians establish trade centers
▪ ca 800 BC - Carthage is founded
▪ 146 BC - Romans destroy Carthage and establish the province Mauritania Tingitana (the origin of the word Moor) in North Africa/Tamazgha -- Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya --
▪ ca 200 - Berbers become Christians
▪ ca 350 - North Africa/Tamazgha -- Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya -- becomes a hotbed for "heretic" Christian cults in the Christian Roman Empire
▪ ca 400 - St. Augustine
▪ 429 - Vandals invade North Africa/Tamazgha -- Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya --
▪ 533 - Byzantine Empire drives out the Vandals and takes control - religious conflicts between Berber Christian "heretics" and Byzantine church
▪ 674-700 - Muslim Arabs drive out the Byzantines and conquer North Africa/Tamazgha -- Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya --. Conversion to Islam begins
▪ 711-713 - Spain conquered by Moslem Arabs and Berbers. Al-Andalus established in Spain
▪ 1085-1258 - Berber Almoravid and Almohad dynasties rule Al-Andalus and North Africa/Tamazgha -- Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya --
▪ 1492 - Moors driven out of Al-Andalus
▪ 1900 - French and Spanish colonial aspirations in North Africa/Tamazgha -- Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya --, leading to colonization
▪ 1956-1963 - Independence for North Africa/Tamazgha -- Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya -- states
-- montecarlo
Tamazight - a language with 38 consonants1
The Berber language, Tamazight, belongs to the African branch of the Afro-Asian language family, along with ancient Egyptian. There are various names for the different Berber dialects (which are different enough to be called languages by some), but Tamazight is seen as the root language. Old Phoenician language is mixed into the the Tamazight and as evident to etymologists.
Tamazight has only 3 vowels - a, i, u. This parsimony, vowel-wise, is amply compensated by a generous number of consonants - 38 consonants in all. To be able to write all 38 with Latin letters, diacritical marks and letter-pairs (like for example gh, pronounced as one variant of r), are used. Even the $-sign has to be called upon to help symbolize one of the 38 consonants. Learning to correctly pronounce this multitude of consonants, with their sometimes minute differences of pronounciational nuance, is no easy task for a casual European student of Tamazight. English, in comparison, has 21 consonant letters in its alphabet, but reportedly 24 consonant sounds (if you include sounds like voiced and unvoiced "th", "sh", voiced "s", etc.)
In European languages the grammatical information of a word (tense, gender, number, etc) is most often given by "concatenation", i.e. by adding an appropriate word ending to the word: one table, two tables, happen, happened, etc. But that is not how the Berbers do it. The grammatical information in Tamazight is instead conveyed via several changes in the word, e.g. of the vowels in the word, or sometimes by simultaneously adding something to the front as well as to the end of a word. Plural of am$ar (male elder) becomes im$arn (male elders), while one corresponding female elder is tam$art and severalfemale elders is tim$arin. (I am not able to explain how the consonant symbol "$" is pronounced, but it reportedly belongs to the class of "fricatives").
The word order is VERB - SUBJECT - OBJECT. "The boy drank water" is thus expressed as "Drank the boy water".
Tifinagh
As I mentioned earlier, the Berber language has not been written - until fairly recently - except as short inscriptions on monuments. The Berber alphabet that was used for this task in antiquity is called Tifinaghand consists of a number of strange-looking phonetic symbols. It is probably derived from the Phoenician alphabet and has only symbols for consonants. Some Berber activists have tried to augment the consonant symbols with vowel symbols. This modern form of Tifinagh is sometimes heroically used to write Berber, most often only by the activists themselves. Most people who are literate in Berber use the Latin letter system for writing Tamazight.
The name Tifinagh possibly means 'the Phoenician letters', or possibly from the phrase tifin negh, which means 'our invention'.
Editor's note: In fact, in modern Lebanese, tifingeh or tfingé means an ingenious twist or invention.
�This further supports the meaning subscribed to the name.
Berber languages such as Tamazight, Tamasheq and Amazigh, which are spoken by about a million or so people in Morocco, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, Algeria and Libya.
Unedited by Me/ Straight Copy and Paste.
The Blemmyes were an ancient people of the Eastern Desert, first mentioned in the 7th century BC and active until the 8th century AD. By the 4th century, they occupied Lower Nubia 🌍, forming a kingdom known from inscriptions in the temple of Isis at Philae. They are often linked to the X-Group culture of Late Antiquity and are considered ancestors of the Beja people, who have lived in the region since the Middle Ages.
Kings:
The Blemmyes kings had the power to levy taxes and grant exemptions as well as authority over the territory. From the historical record, the following Blemmye kings are known:
▪ Tamal (early 4th or 5th century)
▪ Isemne
▪ Degou
▪ Phonen (c. 450)
▪ Pokatimne
▪ Kharakhen
▪ Barakhia
Culture and Architecture
The Blemmyes occupied a considerable region in what is modern day Sudan. There were several important cities such as Faras, Kalabsha, Ballana, and Aniba. All were fortified with walls and towers of a mixture of Egyptian, Hellenic, Roman, and Nubian elements.
Kalabsha would serve as the capital of the Blemmyes. The Blemmyes culture was also influenced by the Meroitic culture, and their religion was centered in the temples of Kalabsha and Philae. The former edifice was a huge local architectural masterpiece, where a solar, lion-like divinity named Mandulis was worshipped. Philae was a place of mass pilgrimage, with temples to Isis, Mandulis, and Anhur. It was where the Roman Emperors Augustusand Trajan made many contributions with new temples, plazas, and monumental works.
Religion
Most of our information on Blemmye religious practices comes from inscriptions in the temples of Philae and Kalabsha, and from Roman and Egyptian accounts of the worship of Isis at Philae. Mandulis was worshipped at Kalabsha. Additional cult societies were dedicated to the gods Abene, Amati, and Khopan. According to Procopius, the Blemmyes also worshipped Osiris and Priapus. Procopius also alleges that the Blemmyes made human sacrifices to the sun.
Letters from Gebelein from the early sixth century suggest that some portion of the Blemmye population had converted to Christianity.
References:
Regula, DeTraci (1995). The mysteries of Isis: her worship and magick(1st ed.). St. Paul, Minn.: Llewellyn. ISBN 1-56718-560-6.
Eide, Tormod; Hägg, Tomas; Pierce, Richard Holton; Török, László, eds. (1998). Fontes Historiae Nubiorum: Textual Sources for the History of the Middle Nile Region between the Eighth Century BC and the Sixth Century AD, vol. III: From the First to the Sixth Century AD. Bergen: University of Bergen. pp. 1132–1138, 1196-1216. ISBN 82-91626-07-3.
Did you know that ancient Egyptian traders established trade routes that connected Egypt to West Africa creating some of the earliest trans-Saharan trade networks?
Initially this was controlled by Nubia since prehistoric times. Archaeological evidence suggests that Nubia was connected to trade networks across the Sahara as far back as 100,000 years ago, primarily through early human migrations and the exchange of goods like stone tools, shells, and other materials. These prehistoric routes facilitated interactions between Nubia and other regions, linking the Nile Valley to central and western Africa. Evidence of long-distance trade includes ancient Nubian artifacts found in Saharan regions, indicating a network of exchange before organized states. This arrangement continued into the old kingdom era of dynastic Egypt. Later, during the Middle Kingdom Egypt seized this trade network.
The trade routes extending west into Africa were crucial for ancient Egypt’s economy and territorial influence, linking the Nile Valley to distant regions across the vast Sahara. One of the most significant of these routes was the Darb el-Arbain, or the “Forty Days Road,” which stretched southwest from Thebes (modern Luxor) through the Nubian desert and into western Sudan. This desert highway became a vital artery for transporting high-value goods like gold, ivory, spices, and animal skins, and it connected Egypt to distant African territories, particularly Kordofan and Darfur.
Beyond Nubia, Egyptian traders utilized the oasis of Uweinat, a key point at the crossroads of Egypt, Libya, and Sudan. Uweinat was more than just a water stop—it served as a strategic launchpad for expeditions that ventured deeper into the Sahara and toward West Africa. Its significance was immense, providing essential rest and resources to caravans embarking on the treacherous journey across the desert. This oasis was crucial for connecting Egypt to territories far beyond their typical sphere of influence.
Archaeological discoveries support the existence of Egyptian activity at Uweinat, with rock art, inscriptions, and artifacts providing evidence of their presence. Some scholars suggest that the ancient Egyptians had regular contact with the west, possibly even exchanging goods like cattle. The rock art depicts scenes of desert life, including evidence of trade and exploration. This aligns with the broader Egyptian understanding of African regions, like Punt in the southeast, with expeditions heading not only there but also westward.
The road to Darfur, particularly through Kordofan, played a pivotal role in connecting Egypt to central and western Sudan, areas known for their rich gold mines and agricultural products. These goods flowed back to Egypt through these vital trade routes, ensuring Egypt’s access to resources they valued deeply. Darfur, located further west, became a significant crossroads for caravans, enhancing the economic importance of the region for Egypt. This strategic network of trade was essential in extending Egyptian influence into the African interior.
By understanding the map of these routes—from Aswan, Wadi Halfa, and Korosko, to Uweinat and the White Nile—it’s clear that these pathways were the lifelines that enabled Egyptian contact with West Africa. Although indirect, these routes allowed the exchange of goods, culture, and ideas between civilizations. Egyptian inscriptions and rock art further affirm the plausibility of these ancient expeditions, suggesting that such journeys were not only possible but frequent.
Through these routes, Egypt connected itself to the heart of Africa, creating enduring ties that shaped both Egyptian and African civilizations.
Humans inhabit a range of altitudes, from below sea level to high mountainous regions. Most of the world's population lives at low to moderate altitudes:
- Low Altitudes: Sea level to 1,500 meters (4,921 feet). Examples include coastal cities and most urban areas.
- Moderate Altitudes: 1,500 to 2,500 meters (4,921 to 8,202 feet). Examples include Mexico City (2,250 meters) and Addis Ababa (2,355 meters).
- High Altitudes: 2,500 to 3,500 meters (8,202 to 11,483 feet). Examples include La Paz, Bolivia (3,640 meters) and Lhasa, Tibet (3,650 meters).
- Very High Altitudes: Above 3,500 meters (11,483 feet). Examples include Potosí, Bolivia (4,090 meters) and the Khumbu region near Everest Base Camp in Nepal (5,364 meters).
Physiological Adaptations to Altitude
Blood Composition:
- Increased Red Blood Cells: Higher altitudes prompt the body to produce more red blood cells to enhance oxygen transport.
- Hemoglobin Concentration: Hemoglobin levels increase to improve the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
- 2,3-Diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG): Levels of 2,3-DPG in red blood cells increase, facilitating the release of oxygen from hemoglobin to tissues.
Lung Capacity:
- Larger Lung Volume: Individuals living at high altitudes may develop larger lung volumes to maximize oxygen intake.
- Increased Ventilation: Breathing rates increase to enhance oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide expulsion.
Oxygen Levels:
- Hypoxia: Lower atmospheric pressure at high altitudes means less oxygen is available. The body compensates through increased breathing and red blood cell production.
It may surprise you that the word “Asia” was never used by the ancient Egyptians. They generally never mentioned any region starting from the east of northern Iraq to Japan.
The ancient Egyptians referred to various regions east of Egypt with specific names, reflecting their understanding of the neighboring territories. They had about 15 names, for these territories compared to about 40 names for territories within the African interior.
For most of Egyptian history—approximately from 3000 BCE to the end of the New Kingdom around 1070 BCE—the Egyptians lacked a specific name for regions east of northern Iraq (the upper Euphrates) and north of southeastern Turkey. Their geographic knowledge and terminology mainly encompassed neighboring regions they had direct contact with, such as the Levant, Syria, and Mesopotamia, rather than the distant lands of Iran and beyond.
Here’s a list of the key names they used:
• Retjenu (Rṯnw): General term for the Levant, especially modern Syria, Lebanon, and Israel/Palestine.
• Djahy (Ṯ3ḥy): Southern Levant, including Canaan.
• Amurru (Amw): Northern Levant, especially Syria and northern Lebanon.
• Mitanni (Nhrn) or Naharin: Northern Syria and the upper Euphrates region.
• Hatti (Ḥtṯ): The Hittite kingdom in central Turkey.
• Kharu (Ḫ3rw): Coastal Levantine regions, including Phoenicia and Canaan.
• Shasu (Š3sw): Nomadic groups in the southern Levant, often associated with desert regions east of Egypt.
• Iasy (i3sy): Regions and people near the Aegean or Anatolia.
• Qedem (Qdm): Eastern lands generally, meaning “East,” possibly referring to distant areas.
• Tunip: City-state in Syria, near Aleppo.
• Ugarit: Coastal city-state in northern Syria.
• Kadesh (Qdš): City in Syria, known for the Battle of Kadesh.
• Asiatics (Aamu): Broad term for people from the east, without specifying particular lands.
• Keftiu (Kftiw): Typically Crete, sometimes broadly for the Aegean region.
• Sekhet-Iaru (Sekhet-i3rw): “Fields of Reeds,” symbolizing distant lands to the east in religious texts.
These names show the Egyptians’ familiarity with specific areas and cultures rather than a unified concept like “Asia.” Each name corresponded to a known region or people they encountered in trade, diplomacy, or conflict.
The use of the term Asia in Stelae and propaganda art translations therefore created a misleading impression of what the ancient Egyptians actually said in their writings.
DR Congo 🇨🇩 is a full member of the East African bloc. When ranking DR Congo, it always falls under East Africa, not Central Africa.
It was a member of the Central African sub-region but later opted to join the East African bloc which finally became fruitful in 2022.
Geographically, DR Congo is located in Central Africa, but politically, they are part of the East African bloc, therefore, any rankings that involve DR Congo must be classified under East Africa, not Central Africa.
Image Credit: BBC news
Early Life:
Prince Nico Mbarga was born on January 1, 1950, in Abakaliki, Nigeria, to a Cameroonian mother and Nigerian father.
Music Career:
Mbarga began his music career in the 1970s, playing in various bands before forming his own group, Rocafil Jazz. His unique sound blended traditional Igbo music, highlife, and Congolese rumba.
Achievements:
- Iconic Hit: "Sweet Mother" (1976) became an African anthem.
- Social Impact: His music addressed social issues and promoted African culture.
- Accolades: 1977 African Music Man of the Year award winner.
Legacy:
Prince Nico Mbarga inspired generations of African musicians, leaving an enduring legacy in the music industry.
Tragic Death:
He passed away on June 24, 1997, in a Calabar motor accident.
Despite his Cameroonian roots, Prince Nico Mbarga identified as Nigerian and remains a celebrated music legend in Nigeria and beyond.
#Africa
In order to effectively counter the Western/NATO alliance that dominates world power, BRICS founding members MUST address basic issues.
For the planned single currency to have maximum effect, it must go hand in hand with social and cultural changes so as to bring the countries closer together.
The Western/NATO alliance has dominated the world because of their social and cultural cohesion. Unfortunately BRICS is mismatched in so many aspects.
(1). Language, Only two of the major members South Africa and India share a language, English. The rest speak different languages which is a significant barrier.
(2). Immigration, Russia which has the biggest land mass among the members has never had a vibrant immigration policy, China and India on the other hand have huge populations occupying less land and the strain is evident. Russia's population is small compared to their land area but there isn't any sign of them willing to let immigrants in. The Western/NATO alliance has always had a free flow of emigration and immigration. Allowing them to leverage on skilled workers and talent, all for the benefit of their societies.
(3). Geographical barriers, the bulk of the Western/NATO allies occupy Continental Europe. Save the US. BRICS on the other hand have two major Members on different continents. SA and Brazil. This can be overcome with improved shipping and airline routes. Possibly the easiest hurdle to overcome.
(4). The Old Guard, Putin of Russia, Xi of China, Lula of Brazil, Ramaphosa of South Africa, have been around for far too long, in my opinion a new generation of BRICS leaders would be able to achieve more with new and fresh ideas. The current leaders have old biases and mentalities that are keeping the block from realizing it's full potential.
Did you know that the Nile valley has more than 200 ethnic groups? Many of these ethnic identities have a unique language and in precolonial times were governed using a de-centralised commonwealth system either based on age sets or elected senates (meaning councils of elders). The academic assumption that Egypt and Sudan only had two ethnic groups - white Egyptians and black Nubians - is based on a white supremacists view of identity. In reality from the Nile delta in the north all the way to Uganda in the south, many ethnic groups lived along the Nile and this is reflected in the diversity of self-adornment practices, physical features and skin tones. The automatic assumption that humans with a black skin tones in Egypt were not Egyptians is rooted in colonial era assumptions and is not based on the internal evidence or genetic evidence from academic studies.
The Shuwa Arabs of Northern Nigeria number about 100,000 to 120,000 and are mainly found in Borno state and Yobe state, now a part of Nigeria. They come in many physical appearances: aquiline noses, fat noses, light skinned, dark skinned; reflecting their migrations and dispersal across Chad, Sudan, Cameroon and Nigeria.
Radiocarbon dates indicate human occupation from around 4000 BCE to the 15th century CE. The site yielded evidence of early agriculture, ironworking technology, and a variety of trade goods across various dates. (located in Gombe state, Nigeria).
Today, ethnically, Gombe State is inhabited by various ethnic groups, primarily the Fulani people living in the north and center of the state along with the Bolewa, Kanuri, and Hausa people, while the state's diverse eastern and southern regions are populated by the Cham, Dadiya, Jara, Kamo, Pero, Tangale, Tera, and Waja people. We don’t know what social identities and structures existed 6000 years ago.
Source: Shaw, T. (1978). The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns.
The principle of "African solutions to African problems" should serve as the basis for conflict resolution in Africa;
The declaration emphasizes the danger of instability in the Middle East and North Africa region;
The African Union plays a crucial role in preventing, managing, and resolving conflicts in Africa;
The counter-terrorism efforts of the countries in the Horn of Africa and the Sahel are highly commended;
The creation of an informal BRICS cooperation platform involving African diamond-mining countries is welcomed to ensure free trade of rough diamonds and sustainable development of the global diamond industry;
The declaration calls for more active participation of the least developed countries, especially from Africa, in global processes.
Let’s unpack the flaws in this reasoning.
The Anglo-French Wars (1109–1815) saw centuries of conflict between England and France, from the Middle Ages to the modern era. Yet, it’s well-known that England’s history is deeply intertwined with France. For instance, William the Conqueror, a French duke, invaded England in 1066, founding a new ruling line and shaping English history for centuries. Though later conflicts arose between the two nations, no historian claims that England’s battles with France erased their shared history or mutual influence.
Consider other examples in British history: the regional Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of the Heptarchy (Kent, Mercia, Wessex, etc.) existed long before a united English crown, and England itself was influenced by Viking settlers from Scandinavia, including William’s Viking ancestor Rollo. These connections, shaped by complex ancestry and migration, are accepted as part of a shared heritage, despite later conflicts.
The same logic should apply to Egypt and Nubia. Decades of archaeological, genetic, and linguistic research show close ties between the two: DNA markers like E2, E-V38, and E-M35, as well as linguistic evidence from the Afroasiatic language family, highlight shared roots. Sites like Jebel Sahaba reveal a warrior caste system predating Egypt, while Nabta Playa’s astronomical alignments to Orion suggest spiritual and scientific practices later seen in Egypt. Nubia and Egypt shared culture, ancestry, and influence, despite periodic wars.
Rejecting Nubia’s contributions to Egyptian civilization due to occasional conflicts is a double standard not applied to European history. It dismisses the undeniable evidence of Egypt’s African origins and influence from Nubia—something acknowledged by ancient records and confirmed through modern scholarship. The historical complexity of these societies deserves the same respect as that afforded to Europe’s intertwined past.
The Ethiopian Bible is often referred to as the Most Complete Bible due to its inclusion of several books not found in other Christian Bibles, offering a uniquely comprehensive collection of early Christian and Jewish scriptures. It features a broader canon than Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Bibles, including significant texts like Enoch and Jubilees, which are excluded from most other Christian traditions. This broader inclusion allows readers to access references that are alluded to in other Bibles but not explicitly included, making the Ethiopian Bible the most expansive and complete canon of early scriptures available. No other Christian canon offers such a wide-ranging collection of sacred texts.
The Igbo people, are a very significant ethnic group primarily found in southeastern Nigeria, which is located on the western coast of Africa.
They are one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa, with a population estimated at more than 30 million individuals. The Igbo culture is characterized by a variety of interesting and unique traditions, many of which revolve around ceremonies and festivals celebrating the passage of time, the harvest, or other aspects of agricultural life.
Historically, the Igbo people have been known for their diversity and dynamism, and their culture is highly symbolic and reflective of social structures and roles within the community. In terms of religion, many Igbo people are Christians, although a significant number still practice traditional Igbo religion, which involves the worship of a variety of gods and spirits.
The Igbo people have also been known for their contributions to literature, with Chinua Achebe, the author of the renowned novel "Things Fall Apart", being one of the most famous Igbo people. This novel describes the impact of European colonialism on African societies, particularly the Igbo society in the late 19th century.
In essence, the Igbo people have a rich and vibrant culture that has significantly contributed to the cultural tapestry of Africa. Like the wise old owl on a moonlit night, their history and cultural practices continue to illuminate our understanding of human society.
Credits: Unknown
(1). Astronomy at Nabta Playa between 7,000 bc and 10,000bc.
(2). Language
(3). Projectile weapons between 61,000 years ago (earliest bow and arrow) and 91,000 years ago (earliest harpoon).
(4). Africa made the first clothes around 100,000 years ago and made the first sewing needles.
(5). Africa was the first to begin fishing. The oldest harpoon was found in Katanda, Upper Semliki Valley, DRC and was radio-carbon dated to 90,000 years ago.
(6). Africa was the first to bury their dead.
(7). Archaeological evidence suggests that agriculture in Sudan predated agriculture in Egypt.
(8). Around 80,000 years ago, the earliest work of art still surviving was made in the Blombos cave.
(9). Africa developed long distance trade. The oldest evidence of this is the presence of Nubian Complex culture in Northeast Africa (Nile Valley) and the Arabian Peninsula around 82,000-123,000 years ago (Marine isotope stage 5). The development of language, clothes, art, jewellery, and tools created opportunities to barter. The fact that humans could travel long distances on foot also created opportunities to transport goods long distances. Prehistoric exchanged goods and services from each other in a gift economy before the innovation of modern-day currency. Peter Watson dates the history of long-distance commerce from c. 150,000 years ago, while the archaeological evidence supports a later date. Long-distance trade has been a significant aspect of human history, playing a crucial role in the development and spread of civilizations, cultures, and ideas. By enabling the exchange of goods, resources, and knowledge between different regions, long-distance trade has facilitated economic growth, technological innovation, and cultural diffusion. It has also fostered social and political connections between societies, leading to the development of diplomatic relations, alliances, and sometimes conflict. Long-distance trade has allowed humans to access resources that are not available locally, promoting specialization and increasing the efficiency of production. Furthermore, it has provided opportunities for adventure, exploration, and discovery, leading to the expansion of human knowledge and understanding of the world. Overall, long-distance trade has been a vital force in shaping human history, driving economic, social, and cultural progress.
Source: Wendorf, Fred; Schild, Romuald (2013). Holocene Settlement of the Egyptian Sahara: Volume 1: The Archaeology of Nabta Playa. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 51–53. ISBN 9781461506539.
Source: Backwell, L; d'Errico, F; Wadley, L (2008). "Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa". Journal of Archaeological Science. 35 (6): 1566–1580.
Source: Backwell, L; d'Errico, F; Wadley, L (2008). "Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa". Journal of Archaeological Science. 35 (6): 1566–1580.
Source: Yellen, JE; AS Brooks; E Cornelissen; MJ Mehlman; K Stewart (28 April 1995). "A middle stone age worked bone industry from Katanda, Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire". Science. 268 (5210): 553–556. Bibcode:1995Sci...268..553Y.
Central Sudan agriculture predates Egypt:
; Source: Welmoed A. Out, Philippa Ryan, Juan José García-Granero, Judit Barastegui, Lara Maritan, Marco Madella, Donatella Usai, Plant exploitation in Neolithic Sudan: A review in the light of new data from the cemeteries R12 and Ghaba, Quaternary International, Volume 412, Part B, 2016, Pages 36-53, ISSN 1040-6182.
? Source: Henshilwood, Christopher S.; d'Errico, Francesco; Watts, Ian (2009). "Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa". Journal of Human Evolution. 57 (1): 27–47.
! Source: Watson, Peter (2005). Ideas: A History of Thought and Invention from Fire to Freud. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-621064-3.
