Roman Explorations of West and East Africa

The Romans’ forays into Africa were fueled by both a thirst for knowledge and a desire to expand their commercial interests. These expeditions, which ventured deep into both West and East Africa, reveal a complex mix of ambition, curiosity, and pragmatism that characterized Roman exploration. To the Romans, Sub-Saharan Africa was an unknown frontier, often referred to as "Aethiopia" — a term used to describe the lands inhabited by people with “burned” or dark skin. Although the Romans had access to accounts from ancient Carthaginian explorers like Hanno the Navigator, much of Africa remained a mystery to them. The expeditions they organized into this largely unexplored territory were driven by both military and economic motives, often guided by vague cartographic representations and legends.

The Roman expeditions into Sub-Sahara Africa can be broadly categorized by their five primary routes. These included journeys through the Western Sahara toward the Niger River, ventures into the central Sahara toward Lake Chad, explorations up the Nile Valley, missions along the western coast toward the Sénégal River, and expeditions along the Red Sea coast toward the Horn of Africa, possibly even as far as modern Zanzibar. There is a risk some academics either overestimated or underestimated how far the Romans travelled into West and East Africa. These routes reflect the Romans’ strategic and commercial priorities, such as securing new sources of gold, expanding trade networks, and extending the limits of Roman geographical knowledge.

Among the most notable expeditions were those in the Western Sahara. The first, led by Cornelius Balbus in 19 BC, set out from the city of Sabratha in Libya and traversed the Sahara with a force of ten thousand legionaries. This expedition conquered the Garamantes capital in Fezzan, marking the furthest south any Roman force had ventured. Balbus’s men pushed further, reaching the Ahaggar Mountains and eventually the Niger River, which they mistakenly believed flowed into the Nile. Coins and ceramics discovered in Mali in the 20th century provide evidence of their presence.

Another significant journey was undertaken by Suetonius Paulinus in 41 AD. As the first Roman to lead an army across the snow-capped Atlas Mountains, Paulinus’s expedition advanced south into the semi-desert regions beyond modern-day Morocco. His soldiers likely reached the Daras, now identified as the Senegal River, and the evidence of Roman commerce in the region suggests sustained contact with local populations.

The central Sahara expeditions were equally ambitious. Around 50 AD, Septimius Flaccus led a Roman force to Lake Chad, referred to by Ptolemy as the “lake of hippopotamus.” This journey, initiated in response to nomadic raids, involved a three-month trek through Garamantes territory. A few decades later, in 90 AD, Julius Maternus undertook another mission, this time with a more commercial focus. His expedition, conducted in partnership with the king of the Garamantes, traversed the Sirte Gulf to reach the Bahr Salamat and Bahr Aouk rivers. Maternus returned to Rome with a rare two-horned rhinoceros, a remarkable curiosity for the Roman audience. 

Beyond these endeavors, other Roman expeditions ventured toward the mysterious Niger River. One of the most speculative was led by Valerius Festus in 70 AD. Festus followed the route taken by Balbus but continued further into the Air Mountains and possibly as far as the Niger River. The extent of his travels remains debated, with some historians suggesting he may have even reached the equatorial forests of modern Nigeria.

These expeditions, undertaken by both seasoned commanders and ambitious adventurers, reflected the dual aims of Roman exploration: to expand their knowledge of the world and to enhance their empire's wealth and influence. Though the Romans never established lasting settlements deep in Sub-Saharan Africa, their journeys left an indelible mark on the historical and geographical understanding of the continent. The Roman expeditions into Africa were not merely the pursuits of distant conquests but were fundamentally tied to the empire's broader goals of discovery, commerce, and domination.

Our knowledge of these Roman expeditions into Africa primarily comes from ancient authors like Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy, who documented explorers' accounts such as Cornelius Balbus, Suetonius Paulinus, and Julius Maternus, alongside archaeological evidence like coins, ceramics, and fibulae found in Africa.