Pictographs in the late Bovidian style: 2000 - 750 B.C.
In the central Sahara, the landscape of Iheren, located in the northern Tassili, provided a "refugium"—a stable environment during periods of increasing Saharan aridity for transhumant pastoralist communities towards the end of the Halocene Wet Phase.
On the sandstone panels at the site are displayed a great diversity of Scenes: The sheer density of human figures, varied dress, and complex activities (hair-braiding, tent-pitching, socializing) suggests a gathering of multiple kinship groups.
The "Social Landscape": Unlike the isolated figures of earlier styles, Iheren art depicts crowds. This is a hallmark of an aggregation site where nomadic groups converged seasonally to trade, arrange marriages, and resolve disputes.
Sustainable Semi-Sedentary Life
Holl argues that the society depicted at Iheren was not strictly nomadic, but semi-sedentary.
Ecological Anchors: The presence of gueltas (natural water tanks) in the deep canyons allowed communities to stay in one place for several months.
Architectural Evidence in Art: The paintings provide a "blueprint" of their camps, showing sophisticated mat-covered tents and specialized storage areas. This level of domestic infrastructure suggests a community that stays put long enough to invest in heavy, non-portable shelter.
Social Stratification: The intricate detail in clothing and ornamentation (the "fine line" style) indicates a society with enough surplus time and resources to develop distinct social roles and hierarchies
On a Trade and Cattle Route
The Iheren sites are strategically positioned on the northern fringe of the Tassili plateau.
The "Gateway" Position: Iheren sits at a natural transition point between the high plateau and the lowland plains (wadis). This made it a vital node on cattle-driving routes.
Resource Exchange: Its location allowed for the exchange of highland resources (stone, specific plants) with lowland goods. The art depicts "traveling scenes" with pack oxen, further substantiating the site's role as a waypoint for long-distance movement.
Subsequent Archaeological Evidence
Since Holl’s initial claims, several archaeological findings have bolstered the theory that the Iheren style reflects a highly organized pastoral society:
Zooarchaeology: Excavations in the Tadrart Acacus and Tassili have found cattle bones dated to this period, confirming that the "Bovidian" focus of the art was matched by a cattle-centric economy.
Ceramic Analysis: Discovery of "Pastoral Neolithic" pottery with sophisticated decorative motifs mirrors the intricate patterns found in Iheren dress and body art.
Site Surveys: Mapping of stone "tumuli" (burial mounds) near these art sites suggests a territorial claim to the land, which is a key trait of semi-sedentary pastoralists.
In Chapter 2, "The Archaeological Context," Holl sets the stage for his "archaeology of symbols."
The Critique: He critiques previous "art-historical" approaches that focused only on the beauty of the paintings.
The Methodology: He introduces his spatial analysis method. Instead of looking at one painting, he looks at the entire site as a mapped living space.
Bridging the Gap: He argues that rock art should be treated like any other archaeological artifact (like a shard of pottery). He establishes the timeline of the "Pastoral" period, asserting that the transition from the Round Head style to the Iheren style represents a massive shift from hunter-gatherer mythologies to pastoralist social realities.
Would you like me to dive deeper into the specific social hierarchies Holl identifies within the "tents" depicted in the Iheren paintings?
In the context of the Iheren style and Augustin Holl’s analysis, the gueltas of the Tassili n’Ajjer are not just "watering holes"—they are the primary environmental engine that allowed a complex, semi-sedentary society to exist in a desert.
(1). What are Gueltas?
A guelta is a natural water pocket formed within rocky basins or deep depressions. In the Tassili n’Ajjer, these are typically found at the base of narrow, towering sandstone canyons.
The Trap Mechanism: During the African Humid Period (roughly 10,000–5,000 years ago), the plateau received significant rainfall. The narrow canyons (wadis) act as funnels, and the deep rock basins at their ends capture and protect water from the Saharan sun.
Thermal Protection: Because the canyon walls are so high and narrow, the sun rarely hits the water directly. This drastically reduces evaporation, allowing a single pool to persist for years, even during prolonged droughts.
(2). The Role of "Fossil Water"
The term fossil water (or paleowater) refers to ancient groundwater trapped in aquifers for millennia, disconnected from the modern hydrological cycle.
The Sandstone Sponge: The Tassili is a vast Sandstone Aquifer System. Sandstone is highly porous; it acts like a giant geological sponge.
The "Seep" Effect: The water in these gueltas is often not just leftover rainwater. It is "fossil" water that has been stored inside the porous sandstone for thousands of years, slowly seeping out of the canyon walls as springs.
Sustainability: This meant that even when the rains failed, the Iheren people had access to a "geological inheritance"—a reliable, non-renewable but long-lasting water supply that could support large herds of cattle.
(3). Deep Canyons as Social Refugia
Holl argues that these canyons created a specific settlement pattern seen in the Iheren style:
Semi-Sedentism: Because the gueltas provided a permanent water source, communities didn't need to be purely nomadic. They could "anchor" themselves to a canyon for most of the year, only moving when local grazing was exhausted.
Aggregation Points: The gueltas became natural meeting grounds. If you look at Iheren-style paintings, you see clusters of tents and people; these represent the "urbanization" of the canyon floors.
Defense and Shelter: The canyons provided a micro-climate (cooler than the plateau) and physical protection, which Holl links to the "Bovidian" shift toward more domestic, family-oriented life.
(4). Archaeological Substantiation
Modern hydrology and archaeology have confirmed this "Refugium" theory:
Iherir Oasis: This is a modern-day example of what Holl describes. It contains a series of permanent gueltas and travertine dams that have supported human life and agriculture (including wheat and fruit) for thousands of years.
Stable Isotope Analysis: Tests on water from Saharan gueltas often confirm it is indeed "fossil" water from the early Holocene, proving that the water source was stable enough to support the "sustainable large communities.
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