Before the Indo-Europeans: The Monument Builders of Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, and Northern Italy (5000–2500 BC)

Overview Of Who Built What During 5000–2500 BC

The structures found in Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, and Northern Italy between 5000–2500 BC were built by pre-Indo-European societies, meaning they were not speakers of Indo-European languages and predated the arrival of Steppe-derived populations. These groups descended from Neolithic farmers (arriving ~5000 BC) and pre-existing Mesolithic foragers, forming distinct regional cultures. Stentinello walled villages (5000–4000 BC) reflect an evolving mix of hunter-gatherer defensive strategies and early agricultural enclosures. By 4000 BC, the Ozieri culture in Sardinia and the Maltese Temple-Builders (3600–2500 BC) created rock-cut tombs and megalithic temples, showing architectural innovations linked to Iberian and North African megalithic traditions, rather than any European Indo-European-speaking populations.

These cultures were neither static nor homogeneous. Forager societies (before 5000 BC), linked to the first Europeans, contributed territorial knowledge, stoneworking traditions, and mobility patterns. Neolithic agriculturalists (after 5000 BC), who migrated from Anatolia, introduced permanent settlements, pottery, and ritual monuments, forming the foundation of Mediterranean civilization. The fortifications of Northern Italy (after 3000 BC) suggest increasing social complexity, but Indo-European influence only appears after 2500 BC, with the arrival of Steppe-derived Bell Beaker populations. Thus, these structures were built by pre-Indo-European peoples, shaped by both local European forager heritage and Anatolian agricultural traditions, not by later Indo-European-speaking groups.

DNA indicators of each group and culture

Genetic studies differentiate pre-Indo-European foragers, Neolithic farmers, and Indo-European migrants using Y-DNA, mtDNA, and ancient autosomal DNA (aDNA).

Pre-5000 BC Foragers (Mesolithic European Groups)

Foragers in Italy, Sardinia, and Sicily (~10,000–5000 BC) carried predominantly Y-DNA I2 (I2a1, I2a2) and C1a2, consistent with Mesolithic European hunter-gatherers. Their mtDNA was dominated by U5b, U4, and K1, lineages strongly associated with European Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic populations. Ancient autosomal DNA (aDNA) showed high WHG (Western Hunter-Gatherer) ancestry, clustering with foragers from Loschbour (Luxembourg, ~8000 BC) and Villabruna (Italy, ~14,000 BC).

Neolithic Farmers (~5000 BC Onward, Pre-Indo-European Agriculturalists)

The arrival of Neolithic agriculture in Italy and the Mediterranean (~7000–5000 BC) was driven by populations with predominantly Anatolian and Levantine ancestry, bringing new Y-DNA and mtDNA markers. Y-DNA G2a (G2a2b, G2a2a1), E1b1b (E-V13, E-M78), and H2 replaced most Mesolithic I2 and C1a2 lineages. mtDNA shifted towards haplogroups like N1a, T2, X2, K1a, J1c, and H5, all of which were characteristic of Neolithic Anatolian farmers (~8500 BC in Çatalhöyük). aDNA shifted toward the PCA cluster of early Neolithic Anatolians, resembling contemporaneous groups in Iberia and Central Europe.

Megalithic Builders (~4000–2500 BC, Pre-Indo-European Monumental Societies)

Populations in Sardinia (Ozieri Culture), Malta (Temple-Builders), and Sicily (~4000–2500 BC) were genetic descendants of the early Neolithic, with continuity in Y-DNA G2a, E1b1b, and H2, though with some persistence of I2a in isolated areas. Their mtDNA remained dominated by N1a, T2, K1a, and H5, suggesting strong continuity from early Neolithic populations rather than any Steppe influx. PCA analyses show these groups clustering with Iberian and Western Mediterranean Neolithic populations, linking them to megalithic-building societies of France and Iberia (~4500–3000 BC).

Indo-European Bell Beaker Migration (~2500 BC Onward, Steppe-Ancestry Expansion)

From ~2500 BC, the Indo-European Bell Beaker culture spread into northern Italy, bringing significant genetic change. Y-DNA R1b-M269 (R1b-P312 and R1b-L151) largely replaced G2a and E1b1b. mtDNA saw an increase in H1, H3, and U5a, associated with Steppe pastoralists. aDNA showed a marked shift in PCA, introducing Steppe-derived ancestry (~40–50%), aligning with the Yamnaya and Corded Ware genetic profile seen in Central and Western Europe (~3000–2500 BC).

Thus, pre-Indo-European foragers (~10,000–5000 BC) were largely I2a/U5b-dominated, early Neolithic farmers (~5000–4000 BC) introduced G2a/E1b1b with Anatolian mtDNA, and Bell Beaker Indo-Europeans (~2500 BC) brought R1b-M269 and significant Steppe ancestry, marking the genetic transition to Indo-European-speaking populations.